1.- INTRODUCTION
This manual aims to transform the learning experience for students, providing essential communication skills crucial for personal, academic, and professional success. It focuses on practical insights and hands-on techniques to empower youth to express their thoughts confidently in diverse communication scenarios.
1.1.- Purpose of the Manual
This manual goes beyond traditional education, guiding young individuals through introductory debating techniques for effective public speaking. It aims to develop critical thinking and articulate expression, contributing to the holistic development of young minds in a world that values effective communication and analytical skills.
1.2.- Importance of Training Young People
The emphasis on training young people is rooted in the understanding that investing in their development is an investment in the future. In a rapidly changing world, the ability to communicate persuasively, analyze ideas critically, and engage in meaningful dialogue is more crucial than ever. This manual aims to be a catalyst for empowering you to be active, informed, and effective contributors to their communities and beyond.ructive feedback to debaters.
2.- PUBLIC SPEAKING BASICS
This section explores the core principles of public speaking, supported by introductory debating techniques. The goal is to cultivate a broad understanding of effective communication, emphasizing practical skills applicable in diverse contexts.s the First Speaker for the Proposition to begin the debate. The order of the debate can be the following:
2.1.- Overcoming Stage Fright
Addressing the universal challenge of stage fright, some strategies are suggested to overcome inhibitions associated with public speaking, including deep breathing exercises, visualization techniques, positive self-talk, and a gradual exposure strategy. The aim is to build not only the ability to speak confidently but also resilience in the face of challenges.
2.2.- Voice and Body Language
Recognizing that communication extends beyond spoken words, it is crucial to keep in mind the significance of voice tone and body language. It is necessary to work on your skills on voice modulation, projecting your voice, and mastering body language. By aligning verbal and non-verbal cues, you establish a holistic and impactful communication style, laying a foundation for subsequent training in debate preparation, argumentative skills, and critical analysis.
Exercise Analyzing a famous speech.
Watch the Braveheart Leadership Speech: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyqoC3wHMwY
Analyze the speech: Take notes in the “your observations” column, based on the guiding questions.
| Aspect | Importance of Element | Description/Questions | Your Observations |
| Overcoming Stage Fright | Demonstrates techniques for managing anxiety, which can inspire and inform personal strategies for public speaking. | How does the speaker manage nerves or stage fright? Are there indications of specific strategies being used? | |
| Voice Modulation | Voice modulation affects audience engagement and the speaker’s ability to convey emotion and emphasis. | Observe the speaker’s use of voice modulation. How does the speaker adjust volume, tone, and pace for emphasis? | |
| Body Language | Non-verbal cues significantly impact the audience’s perception and the speaker’s credibility. | How does the speaker use body language to complement their message? Consider gestures, posture, and movement. | |
| Alignment of Verbal and Non-Verbal Cues | Cohesive messaging is achieved when verbal and non-verbal elements align, enhancing the speech’s overall effectiveness. | How well do the speaker’s verbal and non-verbal cues align to convey a cohesive message? | |
| Audience Engagement | Engagement strategies determine the audience’s attention and receptivity to the message. | How does the speaker engage the audience? Note any use of rhetorical questions, direct address, or interactive elements. | |
| Emotional Appeal | Emotional connection can significantly influence the audience’s response and engagement with the speech. | How does the speaker use emotional appeal to connect with the audience or reinforce their message? | |
| Impact on Audience | The immediate and residual impact on the audience reflects the speech’s effectiveness in achieving its purpose. | What impact does the speech have on the audience? How do they react during and after the speech? |
Solution
| Aspect | Description/Questions | Your Observations |
| Overcoming Stage Fright | How does the speaker manage nerves or stage fright? Are there indications of specific strategies being used? | Wallace shows no signs of stage fright, due to his strong belief in his cause. It demonstrates how purpose can mitigate anxiety. |
| Voice Modulation | Observe the speaker’s use of voice modulation. How does the speaker adjust volume, tone, and pace for emphasis? | Wallace uses voice modulation effectively, varying volume, tone, and pace to emphasize key points and convey urgency. |
| Body Language | How does the speaker use body language to complement their message? Consider gestures, posture, and movement. | His body language, including wide arm gestures and a firm stance, reinforces his words. |
| Alignment of Verbal and Non-Verbal Cues | How well do the speaker’s verbal and non-verbal cues align to convey a cohesive message? | The alignment is seamless, creating a cohesive and persuasive message that underscores his sincerity and passion. |
| Audience Engagement | How does the speaker engage the audience? Note any use of rhetorical questions, direct address, or interactive elements. | Wallace engages through direct address, rhetorical questions, and evocation of shared values, ensuring audience’s full attention. |
| Emotional Appeal | How does the speaker use emotional appeal to connect with the audience or reinforce their message? | Emotional appeal is central, evoking patriotism, courage, and injustice, connecting deeply with desires for freedom. |
| Impact on Audience | What impact does the speech have on the audience? How do they react during and after the speech? | The speech rallies the Scottish warriors, uniting them in a common cause, as evidenced by their cheers and readiness for battle. |
3.- DEBATING ESSENTIALS
Embarking on the journey of debating essentials, this section highlights the importance of comprehending the key components required for effective debate preparation.
Basic Structure
At the heart of successful debates lies a well-defined and coherent structure. You must be aware of the fundamental elements of debate, such as the importance of organizing arguments systematically. By comprehending the basic structure, you are equipped not only for debates but also for broader communication contexts where well-organized thoughts are key. The ARE (Affirmation, Reasons, and Evidence) model is a structure that helps debaters and speakers organize their arguments.
Source: own research.
Image 1. The ARE Model.
Exercise: Use the following template to identify the ARE elements in the extract from The Economist article: “It’s time for TikTok to cut its ties with China”.
“TIKTOK’S ADDICTIVE videos keep its users up late into the evening. But the app’s links to China are causing politicians to lose sleep, too. On March 13th America’s House of Representatives approved a bill that would force TikTok’s Chinese owner, ByteDance, to sell the app to an owner of another nationality, or else face a ban in America, TikTok’s largest market. Other countries, from Britain and France to Australia, have begun to introduce some restrictions of their own. The world’s most downloaded app, by one measure, may soon start disappearing from screens. To stay on them, TikTok must cut its ties to China.” (https://www.economist.com/leaders/2024/03/12/time-for-tiktok-to-cut-its-ties-to-china)
Solution
3.1.- Speech Techniques
Moving beyond structural considerations, effective communication during debates requires mastery of speech techniques. You are expected to craft engaging speeches, encompassing captivating introductions, impactful narratives, and compelling conclusions. By delving into speech techniques, you set the stage for subsequent training in advanced argumentative skills and critical analysis of ideas.
3.2.- Rebuttal Strategies
Debates are dynamic, requiring you to respond thoughtfully to opposing arguments. You must show quick thinking and responsive communication skills through effective rebuttal strategies. The focus extends to maintaining composure while formulating impactful rebuttals, anticipating counterarguments, and even finding common ground when countering opposing points.
Source: own research.
Image 2. The Three-Step Refutation Process.
EXERCISE: REFUTATION
How would you refute the following argument about “Should cities invest more in public transportation than in road infrastructure for private vehicles?” following the three-step refutation process?
“Investing more in road infrastructure is essential due to the current reliance on private vehicles for personal mobility and economic activities. Enhancing road infrastructure will reduce traffic congestion, improve safety, and boost economic growth by facilitating smoother goods transportation.”
Solution:
4.- DEBATE PREPARATION
Delving into the intricacies of debate preparation, it is important to highlight the essential skills for navigating the structured world of debates.
4.1.- Research Skills
Effective debate preparation begins with the acquisition of robust research skills. You must go through the process of gathering and evaluating evidence to substantiate your arguments. The emphasis is on discerning credible sources, conducting thorough investigations, and distinguishing between reliable and questionable data. By honing these research skills, you ensure not only the strength of your positions within debates but also cultivate a broader habit of informed decision-making applicable to various aspects of life.
4.2.- Organizing Arguments
Central to persuasive communication within debates is the skill of organizing arguments coherently. You must master the art of structuring thoughts logically, enabling you to present clear and compelling narratives, establishing a logical flow, ensuring that ideas are not only persuasive but also easily comprehensible to the audience. Contributing to the development of articulate communicators capable of conveying ideas persuasively in diverse public speaking scenarios.
5.- ARGUMENTATIVE AND EXPOSITORY SKILLS
This section hones vital argumentation and exposition skills in young individuals, rooted in introductory debating techniques. The focus extends beyond immediate debates to nurture broader argumentative and expository prowess, fostering critical analysis.
5.1.- Formulating Strong Arguments
At the core of persuasive communication lies the ability to formulate convincing arguments. You must delve into the art of constructing compelling and well-supported arguments. Emphasis is placed on mastering the craft of presenting ideas logically and persuasively, ensuring that arguments are robust and well-substantiated. The goal is not only to succeed within debates but also to establish a foundation for effective communication in various public speaking scenarios.
Exercise: Analyzing the “marshmallow experiment”
Read the following extract from an article discussing Walter Mischel’s marshmallow experiment conducted in the 1960s:
(https://www.theguardian.com/books/2024/mar/04/the-big-idea-should-you-blame-yourself-for-your-bad-habits) and identify the three elements of an argument: the claim or main idea of the argument, the reasons provided to support the claim and the evidence used to back up the reasons:
“In the 1960s the Stanford psychologist Walter Mischel devised a way to measure self-control in four-year-olds. He would leave the preschoolers alone in a room with a plate of marshmallows and a challenge: they could eat one marshmallow right away or wait until the adult returned and eat two. In the decades that followed, he noticed something interesting. The four-year-olds who had waited for the two marshmallows did better at school, were less likely to take drugs or end up in jail, were happier and earned more. He came to believe that self-control, the ability to delay gratification, was the key to success.”
Solution
Affirmation (Claim): Self-control, the ability to delay gratification, was key to success.
Reasons (respond to the question: WHY self-control was key to success?): (because) the four-year-olds who waited for the two marshmallows did better at the school, were less likely to take drugs or end up in jail, were happier and earned more.
Evidence: The Walter Mischel study
We can also represent the structure of the argument as an argument map:
By breaking down the argument into its claim, reasons, and evidence, we understand the importance of building logical arguments that are backed by evidence. This argument aims to demonstrate the critical role of self-control in predicting success, highlighting how clear, well-structured, and supported arguments can influence and shape our understanding and perception of different ideas.
5.2.- Effective Communication
Going beyond the nuances of argumentation, effective communication encompasses a broader set of skills. Effective communication comes from the art of presenting ideas with clarity, coherence, and impact. You must explore elements such as tone, pace, and emphasis, understanding how these factors contribute to engaging and persuasive communication. Techniques for captivating introductions, storytelling, and compelling conclusions must be mastered, ensuring that you can maintain audience interest and involvement. It is also particularly important to align verbal and non-verbal cues, incorporating elements from public speaking basics and debating essentials.
6.- CRITICAL ANALYSIS
This section explores critical analysis, a cornerstone in your intellectual development. Rooted in introductory debating techniques, it extends beyond immediate debates to foster a broader understanding, including scrutinizing opposing ideas and identifying logical fallacies.
6.1. Analyzing Opposing Ideas
Critical analysis involves a thoughtful examination of diverse perspectives, and opposing ideas must be analyzed with depth and nuance. You must develop the ability to approach opposing viewpoints objectively, understanding the importance of comprehending diverse perspectives to strengthen their arguments. Strategies for dissecting opposing ideas must be mastered, so you can identify underlying assumptions, evaluate evidence, and assess the overall coherence of opposing arguments. This skill not only enhances your effectiveness within debates but also cultivates a broader mindset of open-mindedness and constructive engagement, essential for success in various academic, professional, and personal contexts.
Exercise: Analyzing the “marshmallow experiment” II
Analyze the following section of the article that represents opposing viewpoints to Mischel´s original conclusions about self-control and success (worked in the formulating convincing arguments section of the manual) and approach these opposing viewpoints objectively.
“More recently, however, psychologists have challenged his findings. Mischel’s original studies followed fewer than 90 children, all of whom were enrolled in the same nursery. Once you start studying bigger and more diverse groups, a different pattern emerges: it is wealthier children who are better able to resist the marshmallow. That’s partly because they are more likely to trust that they really will get two marshmallows if they wait. It’s also because our ability to resist temptation is shaped by our environment in complex and under-recognised ways. Basically: we’re not fully in control of our self-control.” (https://www.theguardian.com/books/2024/mar/04/the-big-idea-should-you-blame-yourself-for-your-bad-habits)
Solution
| Section 1 | Section 2 | |
| Statement | In the 1960s the Stanford psychologist Walter Mischel devised a way to measure self-control in four-year-olds. He would leave the preschoolers alone in a room with a plate of marshmallows and a challenge: they could eat one marshmallow right away or wait until the adult returned and eat two. In the decades that followed, he noticed something interesting. The four-year-olds who had waited for the two marshmallows did better at school, were less likely to take drugs or end up in jail, were happier and earned more. He came to believe that self-control, the ability to delay gratification, was the key to success. | More recently, however, psychologists have challenged his findings. Mischel’s original studies followed fewer than 90 children, all of whom were enrolled in the same nursery. Once you start studying bigger and more diverse groups, a different pattern emerges: it is wealthier children who are better able to resist the marshmallow. That’s partly because they are more likely to trust that they really will get two marshmallows if they wait. It’s also because our ability to resist temptation is shaped by our environment in complex and under-recognised ways. Basically: we’re not fully in control of our self-control.” |
| Analysis | This section introduces Walter Mischel’s work on self-control through the marshmallow test. It suggests a direct correlation between the ability to delay gratification and future success in various life domains. The core assumption in this section is that self-control is a predictor of success, framing it as a characteristic of individuals. | However, this section challenges the assumption of Mischel’s study by highlighting its methodological limitations and the influence of external factors. This refutation suggests that socioeconomic background and environmental stability influence people’s capacity for self-control and delayed gratification. This perspective shifts the focus from individual traits to the impact of external conditions on behavior. |
| Underlying assumptions | Self-control is an inherent trait of the individual that leads to success. | Environmental and socioeconomic factors play a crucial role. |
| Evidence analysis | Mischel’s original study provides longitudinal data linking self-control to success | The small and homogeneous sample size of Mischel’s original study limits its generalizability. The newer research cited in this section introduces larger and more diverse samples, offering a broader perspective that challenges Mischel’s conclusions. |
| Conclusion | Coherent argument. The lack of consideration for external factors weakens its universality. | The statement in this section provides a more nuanced view that incorporates external influences, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms behind self-control. |
6.2.- Identifying Logical Fallacies
Recognizing and addressing logical fallacies is a crucial aspect of critical analysis. You must be equipped with the tools to identify common flaws in reasoning that may undermine the validity of arguments. Through practical examples and exercises, you become adept at spotting logical fallacies such as strawman arguments and appeals to emotion. The goal is to instill a keen awareness of these fallacies, empowering you to construct and deconstruct arguments with precision. This skill extends beyond the confines of structured debates, fostering a mindset of discernment and analytical thinking applicable in everyday decision-making and discourse.
TIP
Here are descriptions and examples of four of the most common logical fallacies:
| Fallacy | Definition | Example | Explanation |
| Ad Hominem | Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. | “You can’t believe anything John says about environmental policy because he drives an SUV.” | This ignores John’s argument on environmental policy and focuses on discrediting him personally because of his choice of vehicle, suggesting his argument is invalid due to his personal behavior. |
| Strawman | Misrepresenting someone’s argument makes it easier to attack. | “Person A wants some regulations on hunting to protect species. Person B claims Person A wants to ban all hunting.” | Person B exaggerates Person A’s position to make it seem unreasonable. The real argument for regulation is ignored in favor of attacking a more extreme position that Person A did not propose. |
| Appeal to Emotion | Manipulating an emotional response instead of presenting a logical argument. | “Vote against this housing bill. Think of the children who will be out on the streets if it passes.” | This argument plays on the emotions of fear and pity for children to persuade the audience, without addressing the merits or details of the housing bill itself. |
| False Dilemma | Presenting two options as the only possibilities, when more options exist. | “You’re either with us or against us in the fight against crime.” | This simplifies the complex issue of crime fighting into a binary choice, ignoring the possibility of alternative methods or nuanced positions that don’t align strictly with being “with us” or “against us.” |
Another ARGUMENT example
Read the article section, identify the main claim, reasons, and evidence, critically analyze the coherence of the opposing argument, identify underlying assumptions and reflect how understanding opposing viewpoints can strengthen an argument.
“More recently, however, psychologists have challenged his findings. Mischel’s original studies followed fewer than 90 children, all of whom were enrolled in the same nursery. Once you start studying bigger and more diverse groups, a different pattern emerges: it is wealthier children who are better able to resist the marshmallow. That’s partly because they are more likely to trust that they really will get two marshmallows if they wait. It’s also because our ability to resist temptation is shaped by our environment in complex and under-recognised ways. Basically: we’re not fully in control of our self-control.”
Solution
Affirmation (claim): We are not fully in control of our self-control.
Reason (WHY we are not fully in control of our self-control): (because) Our ability to resist temptation is shaped by our environment.
Evidence: psychologists’ new study.
Coherence of the opposing argument: the opposing argument addresses limitations in Mischel´s original study (Mischel´s conclusion from his original study was limited to a small homogenous group made of fewer than 90 children from the same nursery) and provides an explanation for the observed behavior supported by broader research findings.
Underlying assumption in the opposing view: children have the same capacity for self-control (which is challenged by external factors like socio-economic status).
Understanding opposing viewpoints: understanding these opposing viewpoints can strengthen argument by:
Encouraging the consideration of broader, more diverse factors that may influence psychological phenomena.
Highlighting the importance of questioning research limitations and the generalizability of findings.
Demonstrating the value of incorporating diverse perspectives and evidence to build a more comprehensive argument.
7.- PRACTICE SESSIONS
This section underscores the importance of hands-on learning through dedicated practice sessions, integrating the knowledge acquired in public speaking basics, debating essentials, and critical analysis. Rooted in introductory debating techniques, mock debates and feedback mechanisms provide opportunities for continuous improvement.
7.1.- Mock Debates
Engaging in mock debates provides you with a simulated yet dynamic environment where they can apply and refine their public speaking, debating, and critical analysis skills. Then you are encouraged to immerse themselves in structured debates that mirror real-world scenarios. Through these simulations, you not only practice formulating and presenting arguments but also develop the ability to think on their feet, respond to counterarguments, and navigate the dynamics of a debate. The emphasis is on creating a supportive and constructive atmosphere, allowing you to experiment with different techniques, test their understanding of content, and build confidence in their ability to articulate ideas persuasively.
7.2.- Feedback and Improvement
Central to the success of practice sessions is the incorporation of constructive feedback mechanisms. After each mock debate, you must receive feedback from peers and facilitators, focusing on strengths and areas for improvement. In a way of fostering a culture of continuous improvement, here the focus is on the art of providing and receiving feedback. You learn to analyze their performance critically, identify patterns, and implement targeted strategies for enhancement. This iterative process not only hones their debating and public speaking skills but also contributes to their overall growth as effective communicators and critical thinkers. By integrating mock debates with systematic feedback and improvement mechanisms the you can consolidate their learning. It reinforces the practical application of owned skills, allowing them to refine their abilities through experiential learning. This approach ensures that you not only grasp the theoretical aspects of public speaking and debate preparation but also internalize and apply these skills in real-world scenarios, preparing them for success in diverse academic, professional, and personal contexts.
8.- CONCLUSION
As this comprehensive training manual concludes, grounded in introductory debating techniques and the cultivation of argumentative, expository, and critical analysis skills, it underscores the foundational tools provided for the development of young individuals in effective communication and critical thinking.
9.- REFERENCES
Alsaleh, N. J. (2020). Teaching Critical Thinking Skills: Literature Review. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – TOJET, 19(1), 21–39.
Giri, V., & Paily, M. U. (2020). Effect of Scientific Argumentation on the Development of Critical Thinking. Science and Education, 29(3), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11191-020-00120-Y/FIGURES/2.
Lecompte, K., Blevins, B., & Ray, B. (2017). Teaching Current Events and Media Literacy: Critical Thinking, Effective Communication, and Active Citizenship. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 29(3), 17–20. www.medialit.org/reading-room/five-key-questions-form-.
Polat, Ö., & Aydın, E. (2020). The effect of mind mapping on young children’s critical thinking skills. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 38, 100743. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TSC.2020.100743.
WALKER, A., & KETTLER, T. (2020). Developing Critical Thinking Skills in High Ability Adolescents: Effects of a Debate and Argument Analysis Curriculum. Talent, 10(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.46893/TALENT.758473.
Zare, P., & Othman, M. (2015). Students’ Perceptions toward Using Classroom Debate to Develop Critical Thinking and Oral Communication Ability. Asian Social Science, 11(9), 158–170. https://doi.org/10.5539/ASS.V11N9P158.
